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aL
HOGIC AND MAGIC OF
COLOR
AN EXHIBITION CELEBRATING
THE CENTENNIAL ANNIVERSARY
OF THE COOPER UNION
THE
LOGIC AND MAGIC OF
COLOR
o 20th April - 31st August, 1960
THE COOPER UNION MUSEUM
COOPER SQUARE, NEW YORK 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In assembling material for the exhibition, the Museum has received most helpful
suggestions and information from the following, to whom are given grateful
thanks:
Hannes Beckmann
Junius B. Bird
Joseph L. Boland, Jr.
Mrs. Elizabeth Burris-Meyer
Wesley M. Dixon
Raymond B. Dowden
Miss Lillian Eddy
Dr. Gordon F. Ekholm
Karl Fink
Carl Fischer
Miss Margaret B. Freeman
Dr. Burleigh Gardner
Alexander Girard
_ O.C. Holland
Deane B. Judd
Earl L. Kahn
Dr. Paul Levy
Paul R. MacAlister -
Steven MacNeille
Miss Jean E. Mailey
Paul L. Oertell
Charles P. Parkhurst
-Gordon R. Reekie
Max Saltzman
A. E. Schoeffler
Dan Smith -
Douglas Y. Smith —
Milton Stecher
Mrs. Helen Taylor
Colin Turnbull
Miss Florence E. Wall
Miss Midge Wilson
Hugh C. Wolfe
Richard Wood
Dr. Benjamin Wright
Mrs. Roxa Wright
Matthew Wysocki
Copyright 1960 by the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration
COVER DESIGN: wave-length curves of red, yellow
and blue hues as plotted by the spectrophotometer;
adapted from charts prepared by Union Carbide
Plastics Company
CATALOGUE TEXT: stock and inks used in accord-
ance with research studies of Faber Birren to pro-
vide 80% contrast for maximum efficiency and
minimum eye-fatigue.
3G9G SO
LENDERS TO THE EXHIBITION
A la Vieille Russie, Inc.
Allied Chemical Corporation, National
Aniline Division
Allied Chemical Corporation, National
Aniline Division, Harmon Colors
American Art Clay Company
American Biltrite Rubber Company
American Optical Company, Instrument
Division
The American Museum of Natural History
American Viscose Corporation
The Antique Porcelain Company, Inc.
American Fabrics
Hannes Beckmann
Junius B. Bird
Mr. and Mrs. Byron A. Born
The Brooklyn Museum
Brooklyn Botanical Gardens
Brooks Costume Company
Canadian Industries, Ltd., Fabrikoid Division
L. E. Carpenter Company
Celanese Corporation
Ciba Company, Inc.
The Color Association of the U.S., Inc.
Container Corporation of America
Museum of Contemporary Crafts
Corning Glass Center
The Corning Museum of Glass
Cooper Union Art School
Cooper Union School of Engineering,
Physics Department
Cooper Union Library
Ben Cunningham
Arthur Damask
Dr. Sidney M. Edelstein
Esquire
Everson Museum of Art
Fine Arts Associates
French & Company
General Electric Company
Mrs. David Glieberman
W. T. Grant Company
Norman E. Hallendy
Heywood-Wakefield Company
House and Garden
Jack Lenor Larsen, Inc.
Karl Mann Associates
Jan Kindler
Knoll Associates
H. Kohnstamm & Company, Inc.
Mathias Komor
Helen Kroll Kramer
Kubin-Nicholson Corporation
Le Gip Studios
Lippincott & Margulies, Inc.
Miss Ruth Marton
Miss Dorothy Mathews
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Munsell Color Company, Inc.
National Bureau of Standards
National Industrial Design Council,
Ottawa, Canada
The Newark Museum
The New Gallery
Robert O’Hearn
Onandaga Pottery Company
The Art Museum, Princeton University
Radio Corporation of America
Reynolds Metal Company
Rodgers and Hammerstein
Sears, Roebuck and Company
Sidney Janis Gallery
Social Research, Inc.
Milton Stecher
Pola Stout
Sun Chemical Corporation
Thaibok, Inc.
Mr. and Mrs. Eugene Thaw
Tom Lee, Ltd.
Colin Turnbull
Union Carbide Plastics Company
Oppi Untracht
Mrs. Luis F. Vela
William J. Young
Dr. Samuel Zuckerman
INTRODUCTION
Of all visual phenomena, color is so common a part of our lives that few of us
ever really see it and fewer still speculate on such simple yet enigmatic questions as
how and when colors were named as they are, whence come the dyes that color our
clothes and the pigments we spread across a canvas, how designers gauge the
mercurial world of color fashion, to what degree colors better or worsen our psy-
chological and even physical lives, or simplest and most puzzling of all: what, |
exactly, is color. !
To the manufacturer and the shopper who buys his merchandise, color is one
thing; to the artist concerned with the visual effect of pigments, it is another; and to
the psychologist evaluating his experiments in reactions to color, it is something else
again. Each, however, is dependent on the other for a full realization of a specific
color, and no attempt at a true explanation of that color’s creation can be made
without considering color in all its aspects, a consideration that in the end must
necessarily offer an answer to the question, what, exactly, is color. :
The earliest and a most remarkable exploration into the problem is found in
Aristotle’s discussion of the five senses in which he says we cannot see color without
the help of light. Light to Aristotle was an “activity,” a force that when “excited
to actuality” produced the sensation of color, providing a foundation for subse-
quent developments in the science of color. Further on, however, Aristotle gives
an intricately metaphysical analysis of the senses, describing their interdependence
and fundamental connection with the soul. Actual knowledge is quite different
from potential knowledge, says Aristotle; a distinction nicely expressed in a state-
ment in which he appears to turn from an observation of physical color itself to
contemplate the eye, “that which sees,” with a suggestion of the complexities
involved in the brain’s response to color: “If to perceive by sight is just to see, and
what is seen is color (or the colored), then if we are to see that which sees, that
which sees originally must be colored. It is clear therefore that ‘to perceive by
sight has more than one meaning; for even when we are not seeing, it is by sight
that we discriminate darkness from light, though not in the same way as we dis-
tinguish one color from another. Further, in a sense that which sees is colored;
for in each case the sense-organ is capable of receiving the sensible object without
its matter. That is why even when the sensible objects are gone the sensings and
imaginings continue to exist in the sense-organs.” (De Anima, Book III, chap. 2).
On such expositions as this is built the whole body of the metaphysical pheno-
menology of color, ranging from the latest psychological data based on. carefully
annotated experiments, to the wildest sort of fantastic beliefs, rooted in cabalism
and peasant mythology. Objective science, on the other hand, is responsible for the
creation of the dyes and pigments that form the bulk of familiar color matter, while
the physiological perception of color involves the eye, whose reliability as a judge —
though this fact is often ignored — is so completely relative that the exact measure-
ment of color is only possible through scientifically complex machinery.
Questions about color inevitably reach into almost every branch of science, into
philosophy, philology and the arts, as well as the intuitive practices of business —
questions demanding a balance of “actual” and “potential” knowledge, of abstruse
argument and empirically tested fact for answers that are not always visually
demonstrable.
COLOR AND LIGHT
Color springs, literally, from the aether, for in the view of physical science it is
correct to assign color not to an object but rather to the light reflected from the
object. The sweater we wear is only red or blue or gray when we deal with it in
practical, household terms; as an example of scientific explanation, its color is a
sensation received as an image on the retina of the eye. In this scientific perception
of color, the color-producing sensation is always caused by light which is but one
of several aspects of radiant energy. ;
Invisible to the human eye are those forms of radiant energy known as radio
waves, infra-red and ultra-violet radiation, X-ray and gamma rays, while light that
can be seen is contained within the visible spectrum, composed of a distinct series
of colors ranging from violet at one end to red on the other. We see the spectrum
in exactly this range created naturally when there is a rainbow or, more commonly,
a layer of oil slick on a wet pavement. Our knowledge of the spectrum as a scien-
tific phenomenon stems chiefly from the late 17th century when Sir Isaac Newton
recreated the colors of the spectrum by directing light through a prism. Newton
was aware that not all colors were of precisely the same nature; the difference in
their appearances to the eye had to be accounted for in terms of physical science
and Newton concluded that “it is manifest that if the Sun’s Light consisted of but
one sort of Rays there would be but one Colour in the whole World, nor would it be
possible to produce any new Colour by Reflexions and Refractions, and by con-
sequence that the variety of Colours depends upon the composition of Light.”
We know today, substantiating Newton’s conclusion, that every color has a
particular “Ray” all its own, what in modern terminology is called a wave-length.
The wave-lengths of light visible to the eye are measured in millimicrons (one
_ millimicron, abbreviated mp, is twenty-five millionths of an inch) with the range
from violet to red confined to wave-lengths between 380 and 760 millimicrons.
When all wave-lengths within these measurements are presented to the eye in
approximately equal quantities we have a sensation of colorless, or “white” light.
The phenomenon of the rainbow, caused by sunlight dispersed on the curved sur-
faces of raindrops, and the beam of white light passed through a prism are examples
of the separation of white light into its component wave-lengths. On the other
hand, white light may be created by overlapping red, green and blue light, a demon-
stration illustrating additive color mixture since it is the addition of each of the
three colors to the other two that in effect produces the white light, and, conse-
quently these are called the additive primaries (No. 7). A second set of primary
colors, red, yellow and blue, are related to subtractive color mixture, since each
color subtracts its complementary from white light (No. 9). Technically, the
subtractive primaries are not red, yellow and blue but magenta, yellow and cyan.
The magenta absorbs green, the yellow absorbs blue, and the cyan absorbs red,
resulting in black since all light has been subtracted.
Most ordinary objects absorb differing amounts of light of differing wave-lengths
and our perception of a particular color is a result of the sensation produced by the
light that is not absorbed but reflected. The red book-cover has a coloring material
whose physical structure is such that it absorbs all light but that wave-length which
produces red. Another aspect in the distribution of wave-lengths is scattering. The
color of the blue sky is affected by the relative scattering of sunlight by the atmo-
sphere. Variations in the density of the atmospheric gases scatter the shorter wave-_
lengths at the blue end of the spectrum more than they scatter the longer wave-
lengths. When the sun is high in the sky, enough short wave-lengths are present to
make the sky appear blue, but early or late in the day, the sun’s rays strike the earth
more obliquely, passing a much greater distance through the atmosphere and
causing the longer wave-lengths to be more apparent, with a consequent change in
color from blue to yellow, orange and red, the usual colors of the evening sky.
When a painter paints with oils or watercolors, a dyer colors his cloth or a
lighting technician uses color filters, each modifies a white or colored surface in
such a way that it takes on further color. Usually this is achieved through the use
of pigments or dyes whose color relies on the principle of subtractive mixture, and
this is why to most of us “red, yellow and blue” are the primary colors,
In addition to refraction, in which we see the spectrum produced by light through
a prism (No. 1), the spectrum is seen in other phenomena such as interference,
where a light ray reflected from the bottom surface of a film such as that found in
a soap bubble or the oil slick on wet pavement travels a slightly greater distance
than a parallel ray reflected from the top surface. Some wave-lengths are weakened
more than others as the crests of one wave penetrate the troughs of another,
causing the interference. The spectrum is again seen when white light is separated
by diffraction, achieved, for example, through the use of evenly ruled surfaces,
called diffraction gratings, with the rulings sometimes so close together they
are invisible to the eye yet effectively diffract the white light (Nos. 6, 11). In the —
former, the molecules of a fluorescent material absorb radiant energy of one wave-
length and re-radiate it as another wave-length; the radiant energy thus absorbed
frequently comes from outside the visible spectrum, as in the instance of “black
light.” Stage costumes that glow in the dark under ultra-violet radiation from lamps _
with filters that absorb the visible radiation and re-radiate ultra-violet radiation are
dyed in such a way that the invisible ultra-violet radiation is returned from the
costume itself as a visible color. Even more intricate is polarization, in which light
is said to be polarized or non-polarized depending on the relation of reflected light
_ to refracted light (Nos. 14, 17); as a visible phenomenon it may be observed in
material with a pronounced lustre or sheen.
With our perception of color dependent on the behavior of wave-lengths and
their phenomenal peculiarities, it is not surprising to find these peculiarities amply
represented in nature as well as in the physics laboratory. The iridescence in
mother-of-pearl (No. 42) and in the plumage of certain birds (Nos. 130, 124)
and insects (No. 125) is the result of interference and diffraction, while the spec-
tacular effect of cut crystal (No. 2) — and of diamonds — is due to prismatic
refraction. | |
Among the many artists whose chief concern has been Eee the group known
as the Orphists deliberately set out to represent on canvas their interpretations of
the phenomena observed when white light was separated into its spectral colors
(No. 185). At its height about 1912, Orphism was an important movement in the
early history of non-figurative painting and at the same time extended the artist’s
use of color beyond an interest in surface effects to the deeper confines of symbolism
and its psychological relations to music.
The point of view expressed in a physical analysis of color, that color and light
are one and the same thing, that color is light, serves as a solid base that is by no
means the entire explanation of the production and interpretation of color, yet in an
infinite number of ways, color’s production and interpretation are next to meaning-
less without an understanding of this physical genesis of color.
NATURE AND COLOR CHEMISTRY
Color is a child not only of light, but of the material characteristics of whatever
it is the light falls upon. The red sweater, as a phenomenon of physics, is red
because all wave-lengths but one are absorbed, yet the wave-length must be
“excited to actuality” in some way, and, in fact, the sweater’s redness is dependent
on the dyeing of its fibres. The molecular structure of the particular substance in
which it is dyed in a sense predetermines what wave-lengths shall and shall not be
absorbed and reflected, a scientific process confined to chemistry.
The ancient Egyptians were among the world’s first and most accomplished
color chemists, using the earth’s natural resources (No. 43) for a marvelous variety
of coloring materials to dye their clothes and their hair, and paint their bodies. Dios-
corides, Theophrastus and Vitruvius all have things to say about dyes and dyeing
methods in Greco-Roman times, but the richest literary source of the ancient world
is Pliny’s Natural History in which he tells not only from what animals and plants
particular dyes were made but, even more valuable historically, recipes for such
famous dyes as indigo and the elusive purple made from the murex shells found
along the Mediterranean shores of Europe, Africa and Asia Minor.
Purple, in its rarity, became the prerogative of kings; they were crowned in robes
of purple, and buried in sarcophagi of porphyry, the reddish-purple rock expen-
sively mined in Egypt. Dyes and pigments were a major factor in the economic
and political shifts of power that marked the transition of medieval Europe from
a feudal to a commercial society. Wars were fought, new dye and pigment
10
sources found, and new compounds invented when in the middle of the 19th
century the accidental discovery that dyes could be made wholly from coal tar
compounds dissolved in a breath the whole system of natural dyes and pigments
that had served the commercial world for centuries. Today, the creation of the
immense variety of colors which surrounds our daily lives is so infinitely complex a
process, dependent on a specialized knowledge of chemistry, that it is entirely out-
side the experience of the ordinary individual. It is inconceivable that a lady of
today would produce her own face rouge, as did her 18th-century counterpart, by
boiling a mixture of Brazil Wood shavings and Roch Alum in red wine “Till two-
thirds of the liquor are consumed. When this decoction has stood till cold, rub a
little on the cheeks with a bit of cotton.” Even dyeing methods were understood
by the average man in an earlier age and, to some extent, probably used in the
home. An early 19th-century magazine, Ackermann’s Repository, gives instruc-
tions for “Domestic Processes for Dyeing Woolen, Silk, Cotton, and other Stuffs,
a Permanent Yellow, Red, Crimson, Blue, Brown, Buff, Nankeen, Fawn Colour
etc., etc.” Wool could be dyed brown or fawn by “making a decoction of the
green covering of the walnut. It is well known that walnut-peels strongly dye the
skin. To dye brown with them, nothing else is required than to immerse the
article in a warm decoction of them till it has acquired the wished-for colour.”
Not all recipes were quite so simple, many having several more steps including
the addition of subtle amounts of such chemicals as “crystallized acetate of copper”
and “sal ammoniac” at the right moment. The heart of these recipes, whether for
the home manufacture of cosmetics or small factory production of dyes, lies in the
use of particular natural substances as the foundation for all coloring matter, and
while these substances frequently underwent considerable chemical action before
they were ready for actual use as a dye or pigment, the result is termed “natural”
since the ultimate source was some material found in nature, a term readily under-
stood when we know that modern dyes and pigments not only finish but begin as
purely synthetic substances.
Alchemy, in the popular imagination, is associated with quackery and occult
mysteries but alchemy is also the respectable parent of chemistry. The practice of
alchemy, known to the early Greeks and probably to the Egyptians, was initially
concerned with the transmutation of base metals into gold and, although its ethics
became increasingly tarnished during the Middle Ages, alchemy developed many
11
of the technical methods and much of the apparatus of present-day chemistry.
Coupled with alchemy’s naive belief in the philosopher’s stone was a very practical
discovery which, at a very early date, influenced the chemical creation of color.
Alchemists noticed that on dipping hot metals into their various mordant baths
they acquired unusual colors, or became “dyed.” Eventually, the colorers of metals
and dyers of fabrics were in an identical business, and today we speak not only of
“dyeing” fabrics but the term is also used for the process by which anodized metals
are colored (No. 91).
The colors of our clothing, wallpaper, automobiles, the covers of the books we
read, of everything in which color is not the direct result of natural creation, are
the product of either dyes or pigments. Distinctions between the two lie chiefly
in the nature of the substance; dyes are organic and soluble while pigments, with
certain exceptions, are inorganic and insoluble. Prior to the mid-19th century,
both relied on an assortment of animal, mineral and vegetable sources with the
same source frequently capable of producing either a dye or pigment. The earliest
dyes were probably discovered by accident and may have been stains from berries,
fruits and nuts used as food. Dyeing as an art seems to have independently devel-
oped and been practiced among primitive peoples everywhere (Nos. 133, 156).
From simple origins, dyeing quickly became a relatively complex chemical pro-
cedure often requiring several days of boiling, filtering and oxidization. Most dyes
relied on the action of mordants to make them “fast,” or firmly adherent, with the
customary mordant a soluble salt of aluminum, iron or tin.
Among the great names in natural dyes were madder, kermes, and cochineal
(No. 49) for red, weld for yellow, murex for purple (No. 61), and woad and
indigo for blue (Nos. 57,58). Nearly all dye sources were plants or animals and at
an early point in the history of dyeing it was realized that plant dyes adhere most
successfully to plant fibres and animal dyes to animal fibres. Minerals, on the
other hand, were almost exclusively raw materials for pigments (Nos. 43, 44).
While many pigment sources, such as malachite and lapis lazuli, are familiar
through frequent use in their natural state (No. 119), others are generally unrecog-
nizable. These are what medieval writers classified as “artificial” pigments, manu-
factured salts such as vermilion, a compound of mercury and sulphur, or verdigris,
produced by treating copper plates with the acetic acid vapors given off by vinegar.
By modern standards, the manufacture of both dyes and pigments in the past must
12
have known its share of incalculable risks as the quality of natural substances was
certain to vary and formulas were often loosely inexact, risks which since the
development of synthetic dyes and pigments are, by comparison, reduced to near
non-existence.
Synthetic dyes owe their immediate origin to William Henry Perkin, who as a
young medical student in London attempting to prepare quinine synthetically
discovered that his result was not the desired medicine but a blueish-red dyestuff
obtained from the distillation products of coal tar. Perkin’s first aniline dye was a
violet-colored mauveine, “Perkin’s mauve,” and its commercial manufacture began
in 1857, only a year after its discovery (No. 74). Soon, an aniline red was
developed, later called fuchsine or magenta (No. 76), then further experiments
saw the conversion of fuchsine into violet, blue and green derivatives. Dyestuff
chemists worked empirically with little real knowledge of the chemical structure
of the molecules involved and why they behaved as they did. In 1869, Friedrich
Kekulé published a formula which ‘held that a hexagonal ring structure may be
assigned to benzene, and from CeHe, six parts carbon and six parts hydrogen, is
derived the molecular constitution of benzene. Kekulé’s theory became the founda-
tion of benzene chemistry and of all subsequent dyestuff research (No. 81).
Synthesized alizarin and azo dyes were born in 1868 and 1877, and one of
the greatest triumphs of dyestuff chemistry was the later synthesis of indigo.
Pigments, always closely related to dyes, were drawn even closer within the frame-
work of organic chemistry and dyes and pigments together share the practical
results of chemical compounds which solely through the molecular arrangement
of elements produce the astonishing variety of colors that are manufactured today.
Research, however, just as in the old days of the alchemists, is a never-ending
quest, and as the past hundred years have witnessed extraordinary developments
in the physical creation of color, present-day science invents not only new colors
but new materials, materials offering new challenges to color chemistry.
VISUAL PHENOMENA, SYSTEMS AND COLOR MEASUREMENT
Color, wave-lengths of light reflected from material objects, is seen by the human
eye. With its complex physical apparatus, the eye forms an image of the color
as a wave-length of light on the eye’s retina, a lens that is the rear surface of the
eyeball, immediately causing an electric disturbance which activates special light-
13
sensitive elements within the retina. Connected with the brain by the single optic
nerve behind each eyeball, these elements are the rods and cones. How, precisely,
rods and cones separate one color from another is unknown, and while physiologists
do know that cones are responsible for color vision and rods for vision that merely
distinguishes degrees of light and dark, they can only speculate on the exact nature
of the physical process of color selection.
The phenomenon of color mixture indicates that the retina must respond in at
least three different ways to different colors. Still the most widely accepted general
explanation is that of Young and Helmholtz, who concluded there must be three
distinct kinds of cone receptors, separately responsive to either red, blue or green
wave-lengths. All other colors were conceived as blends of differing degrees and
proportions on the part of these three, a mutual interaction accounting for non-
primary colors, while color-blindness, according to the Young-Helmholtz theory,
is caused by peculiar deficiencies in one or more of the three sets of cone receptors.
As mysterious as the physical function of cones in the eye’s retina are various
psychophysical optical phenomena such as after-images, contrast-enhancement and
fusion. There are many kinds of after-images, with the usual chromatic phenome-
non termed a complementary after-image in which visual concentration on red,
for example, will cause an after-image of green the brief second the eye looks away
from the stimulating color (No. 23). A more readily observable phenomenon
involving complementary colors is contrast-enhancement. Red immediately juxta-
posed with green, or blue with yellow, increases the intensity of each; a particular
red appears “redder” and the green “greener” than when seen independently.
Fusion is an optical mixture of two colors in which the eye sees neither as it is in
isolation but an apparent third color created by juxtaposed complementaries.
Visual phenomena were long ago empirically understood by artists and crafts-
men. The knowing use of red-green contrast-enhancement by Delacroix is certainly
matched for brilliant effect, for instance, in specific 15th-century Spanish textiles
(No. 19) while both Alberti and Filarete, important figures of the Renaissance in
15th-century Italy, wrote that with red next to green, each enhanced the vividness
of the other. The 19th century saw the formulation into rational principles of these
empirical practices, and the culmination of “scientific” painting was reached with
Seurat, who, relying on what he called “the simultaneous contrast of colors,”
related his pointillist technique to the theoretical ideas of Chevreul.
14
Chevreul, director of the Dye Works of the French Gobelins factory, set out
to discover why there were complaints about the quality of certain colors prepared
in the Gobelins’ dyeing laboratories. His investigations (No. 40) led him to
conclude that “the want of vigor” imputed to particular colors was “owing to the
colors contiguous to them, and that the matter was involved in the phenomena of
the contrast of colors.” Chevreul wrote a monumental treatise based on his findings
that not only influenced the course of impressionist and post-impressionist painting,
but also acted as a spur to the century’s increasing scientific concern with color.
Typical of this concern is a criticism of Chevreul’s method from a later work,
Field's Chromatography: “Chevreul went entirely by the judgment of the eye. This
method is open to much objection, as even the most carefully trained eyes are
liable to be misled, and influenced by association.” Out of this kind of critical
approach have grown a number of intricately detailed color systems, with the two
best-known and most frequently-used today called, after their founders, the Ostwald
and the Munsell systems. Less generally familiar is the equally important, and
somewhat more specialized, CIE (Commission Internationale d’Eclairage) system,
which has developed the chromaticity diagram, a horseshoe-shaped map whose
outer boundaries represent the pure spectrum colors in relation to each other
(No. 200).
Both the Ostwald and Munsell systems rely for color gradations on three specific
concepts: hue, value and chroma. Hue defines the color in relation to the spectrum,
whether it is red, or green or orange and so on; value is the relative degree of light
or dark, ranging from white to black; and chroma describes a particular color’s
intensity, whether it is a very dull or extremely brilliant color (Nos. 205, 206). Fre-
quently, color scientists will substitute the terms brightness and saturation for
value and chroma.
Users of either the Ostwald or Munsell system are apt to be partisan in their
choice, with the pro-Ostwald faction likely to comprise those who work with color
in a creative capacity, and the pro-Munsell group those concerned with the measure-
ment and the exact matching of color. Each group finds that the distinctions which
set one system apart from the other are its very virtues, distinctions that exist,
however, within a general framework which at a casual glance would convey an
impression of nearly duplicate systems.
The measurement of color, or colorimetry, is a demanding discipline vital to the
15
unknown millions who have ever tried to match a particular color with more of the
same, as well as to all in the manufacturing world whose livelihood may depend on
a color’s constancy, to the maintainers of safety color codes (No. 211), and even
to graders of commercially processed foods. Related to measurement is the identi-
fication of the elements of chemistry on the basis of color, with helium initially
discovered through its identifying yellow color; and color is an integral and com-
plex part of the Quantum Theory.
In the United States the National Bureau of Standards, assisted by the learned
and professional associations composing the Inter-Society Color Council, has done
much to establish carefully worked-out standards for measuring color, employing all
the technical resources of modern science. Among the many mechanical devices
employed for color measurement, the ultimate in exactness is the spectrophotometer,
which can plot a graph that will include all the wave-lengths, with measurements
of their relative strength, that are reflected by any hue submitted for analysis
(No. 217). i
Highly specialized colorimetry prefers letters and numbers to actual names for
color designations. A dark green-yellow in the Munsell system, for example, may
be described by GY 3/8, in which 3 specifies value and 8 chroma. This is a long
way from the designations used in what is perhaps the earliest system for color
standardization we know: heraldry. The familiar color terms in medieval heraldry,
or for gold, argent for silver, sable for black, gules for red, and so forth, were
closely connected with the overlapping symbolism of the period and may have
stemmed from Aristotle’s transposition of the names of the seven planets to metals
and colors. In practice, however, the color terms in heraldry were apparently
represented by conventional rendering; argent by unfilled space, or by dots, and
vertical, horizontal or diagonal lines with combinations of the three for the
remainder. Heraldic colors were, consequently, not only standardized in termino-
logy but recognizable solely on the basis of a simple system of lines and dots, a
system that while primitive in degree is not so far removed in kind from today’s
use of specific letters and numbers.
Standardization is equated with stability, a permanence which in its flexible
accommodation of all the variations of value and chroma attached to a hue never-
theless establishes a fixed order of distinctions that is completely unaffected by the
associative ideas inevitably related to color names. Names, however, are the garb
16
of fashion whose soul is change. The Dictionary of Color by Maerz and Paul lists
over four thousand color names. Colors popular ten, twenty, a hundred years ago
have been forgotten and we might believe that “nankeen,” a great favorite in the
18th and early 19th centuries, is a color forever lost until we realize that only the
name and not the color is gone. Fashion’s constant search for uniqueness demands
unique colors and such is the color “consumer’s” psychological reaction that he
will often accept as unique what is in actual fact a familiar color with a new name,
a fiction compounded when individual manufacturers and professional employers
of color formulate their own “unique” color ranges.
Turquoise, beige, persimmon, coral, lime are terms for which our imaginations
have an instantaneous color image. Color names in all their inconstancy appeal to
our apparently natural desire for variety, a pleasantly irrational state of mind that
is frivolously mercurial and wholly opposed to the standardization of color
terminology.
The eye, filtering and transmitting light waves to the brain which produces
sensations of color, is physically incapable of the exacting measurement of color.
Yet because of the peculiar interaction between the eye’s physical function and
psychological responses in the brain, any personal evaluation of color is a concep-
tual process whose sole “mechanical” tool is the eye. Optics and color measure-
ment become the bridge between physics and metaphysics, the certain wave-length
of light and the uncertain response in the human brain.
COLOR AND HUMAN RESPONSE
If, as in the instance of after-images, and the fusion of colors in the eye, man’s
physical apparatus is sometimes subject to tricks that are not entirely explainable,
his powers of reason in matters of color are almost always at the mercy of the
human psyche’s arbitrary whims and irrational fancies. Hard as this may be to
believe, we need look no farther for evidence than the accounts of a primitive
homeopathy that relied on the magical use of color, or the intricacies of a color
symbolism whose origins are frequently unknown yet which survives in so many
uses today, or ask ourselves why it is we prefer this color to that and why we
associate particular states of mind with particular colors.
The magical properties of color are even today, among less medically advanced
peoples, a fixed part of cures for diseases. Frazer, in The Golden Bough, tells of an
17
elaborate ceremony once practiced in India for the cure of jaundice in which the
yellow color was banished to yellow creatures and yellow things, such as birds
and the sun, and to procure for the patient a healthy red color from a vigorous
source, usually a red bull. A priest, reciting an appropriate Vedic hymn, performed
a series of rites that relied on physical contact between the patient and the dead
bull’s blood, hair and skin. For cures, and especially as preventive protection,
probably nothing in the magical world has ever surpassed gems (No. 270). The
brilliance of cut and polished stones, often so different from their initial drab
appearance, is in itself a magical achievement that borders on sorcery.
All ancient peoples seem to have worn quantities of gems and while it is true
they may have often been worn simply as adornment, gems probably had a dual
function with their role as amulets as significant as any other. A fine emerald
insured its owner of a good memory, eloquent speech and even powers of prophecy;
rubies preserved bodily and mental health, removed evil thoughts and dissipated
pestilential vapors; jasper cured snake bites; and wearers of agate were guarded
from all dangers, free of insomnia and sure to have pleasant dreams. In nearly all
such uses is traceable a relationship between the good acquired or evil warded off
and the color itself, an elementary symbolism that is a universal aspect of magic.
In an early 14-century manual for the faithful, Mirror of Human Salvation,
the author warns us not to marvel that the same things may signify the devil at one
time and Christ at another. In considering any connection between colors and
particular emotions or as distinct symbols, we can never be inflexibly didactic.
There is never exclusively one symbolic meaning attached to a color, for in every
concrete situation, the color or colors involved are not only outer aspects, surfaces,
but also expressions of the situation itself. These concrete situations are doubtless
what the author of the Mirror of Human Salvation had in mind, and what the
eminent, modern-day psychologist, Kouwer, means by the “polyvalence” of
colors, the multiple potentialities in the meanings of color depending on concrete
situations. Red does not stand only for anger or passion or blue for fidelity. Color
symbolism cannot be reduced solely to a list of contrasts, sin and love, supreme joy
and base desire, but to an infinitely subtler analysis in which colors and whatever
meanings are associated with them are always subject to shifts in interpretation.
It frequently becomes a question of the emotional weight attached to words them-
selves, a weight that differs in time and place and especially in language. In poetic
18
German, for example, “die Baume griinen, der Himmel blaut,” are expressions
meaning not that the trees become green and the sky turns blue but the trees are ~
green and the sky is blue, representing a use of a color word as a verb, a physical
activity in the best Aristotelian sense. Ruskin, commenting on the color perception
of the Greeks, finds it all founded primarily on the degree of connection between
color and light. Homer’s use of purple nearly always means “fiery, full of light,”
and, says Ruskin, light subdued by blackness, according to Aristotle, becomes red;
and blackness, heated or lighted, also becomes red. The perfect physical analogy
for this metaphysical idea are the transitions from day to night and night to day,
the red skies of dawn and dusk.
Black, white and red, a triangle in which red is always at the apex, served
Goethe for his quasi-scientific color theories as well as they did the Greeks, and they
are essential symbolic colors in innumerable primitive rites (No. 173). Red is the
color “par excellence,” comments Kouwer. Its chromaticity has the maximum
concentration; with red, reason is replaced by the irrationality of action and
the dynamics of the moment. It is impossible to keep red at a distance or to
rationalize it.
Red is a symbol of life in its animal, corporeal aspect, of fever as well as glowing
health, of masculinity, aggressiveness, evil and sacrifice. It is the color of Bacchus in
his role as god of regeneration. Red is almost always, in its ultimate symbolic
derivation, associated with blood, shown not only by philological comparisons of
word roots but by its extensive use as visual symbolism.
During the Middle Ages, that great era of symbolism, all colors were endowed
with meaning and red assumed its secular place as the preserve of kings and princes
and its religious significance for the Holy Blood (No. 262) and the Triumph of
Christ at the Resurrection (No. 197) as well as the sacrifice of martyr saints, and
the church adopted red as a canonical color for feasts commemorating sacrifice
(No. 269).
For the Chinese, red is the color of joy and good fortune. In India it is a
color for weddings (No. 268); and an ancient Hindu gem treatise asserts that
to kings alone were allowed two varieties of colored diamonds, “those red as coral
and those yellow as saffron.” The Indians of North and Central South America use
black, white, red and yellow to distinguish the four points of the compass.
Of all “chromatic” colors, those other than gradations of black and white, yellow
19
is the one most consistently allied with red, the two appearing as constant com-
panions in Oriental symbolism (No. 273), and, in nearly all languages, are the
first of the “chromatic” colors to acquire distinct names. This phenomenon is
attributed to the relative conspicuousness of red and yellow as opposed to green
and blue, the most commonly found colors in nature and, as a consequence, colors
that recede in our conscious awareness. Goethe called blue “ein reizendes Nichts”
(an alluring nothingness), and almost everywhere blue is the last of the primary
colors to be indicated by a special term, with some peoples having no names at all
for blue other than “like the sky.”
Language is, however, an uncertain measure of the quality of color perception.
The African pygmies of the Ituri forest in the Belgian Congo have no specific name
for green, which is “like the leaves,” and differing colors dark in value are all
regarded as black, yet they make clear distinctions among particular shades of
colors such as white and brown, distinctions that are not always apparent to our
own differently conditioned eyes (No. 178). Terminologies may be simply a means
for vocal expression of a much deeper color-perception process that involves sev-
eral of the senses, a unity of function to a point where one is able to say “not that
my senses but that I perceive,” red or blue or green. This unity, or synesthesia,
has no agreed-upon physical or even metaphysical explanation, yet it has been
recognized as a phenomenon since at least the time of Aristotle, and the numerous
attempts throughout history to create a color music have been one of its chief
visible symbols. The symbolist poets felt the impress of synesthesia: Mallarmé
speaks of “des yeux bleus et froids,” and Rimbaud’s sonnet, The Vowels, begins
“A noir, E blanc, I rouge, O vert, U bleu.” Involuntary reactions to color, like
those of the factory workers who became easily excited and tired quickly when the
factory's windows were covered with red, and who reacted conversely when the red
was replaced by green, may also be a form of synesthesia.
In spite of psychological conditioning on the part of advertising, the “consumers”
of color still have color preferences that are synesthetic in origin. Colors are
“warm,” “cold,” “hard,” and “soft,” and as one person views a particular color as
warm, another sees it as cold. Preference even extends to a point where one who
favors warm colors will choose warm shades of such cool colors as green and blue,
and another who favors cool colors will have a reverse preference. Individual color
preferences are part of a larger, a mass preference and each feeds on the other.
20
Color choice is subject to influences that are entirely non-psychic in origin; imagin-
ative theatrical costuming, the paucity of dyes and pigments in wartime, technical
developments in creating new colors and developments in lighting techniques that
affect the appearances of color, and even the arbitrary preference of a public
personality. Geography and climate affect the color choice of whole groups of
peoples. Strong, constant sunlight requires colors of strong intensity; any others
are visually ineffective.
Through a mysterious interaction of all these forces, certain colors become
fashion, a process so real that not only decades but centuries are often conceived
in terms of particular colors. Within these arbitrarily defined units, fashion is
never still, constantly shifting, but shifting in what appears as quite definite cycles
(No. 286). “Kitchens and bathrooms were a porcelain and surgical white. Furni-
ture was in natural wood tints, surfaced with colorless finish . . . things were, so to
speak, as God made them — each object deriving its color from the material of
which it was fashioned. . . . Turn now to the thoroughly painted home of 1928.
... This quotation from Fortune of February, 1930, could easily have been written
in 1960, and the “thoroughly painted home” not 1928 but 1958. A general color
cycle has been repeated and will doubtless be repeated again.
While the directional movement of color cycles may correspond to the color
order of the spectrum, there appears to be a very definite correlation of color fash-
ions among clothing, interior decoration and, today, even automobiles, but it is
difficult to say which sets the pace, how the influences are really transmitted, or
whether each maintains a color cycle that is actually independent of its relatives,
all questions in which psychology and its commercial periphery have indistinguish-
able roles.
As the data of psychology aim to lift scientific reason out of psyche’s chaos,
psychology must nevertheless always adjust, even submit to the forces of irration-
ality and become a part, with symbolism and language, of metaphysics. While the
physics of color —color as light — and color chemistry — the creation of color
through chemical means — are measurable, predictable, and to an extent control-
lable, the metaphysics of color, the complex reactions we have to color and why
we have them, represent the final, and determining, stage in our perception of color.
EDWARD KALLOP
21
CATALOGUE
COLOR AND LIGHT
Demonstrations in this section have been de-
veloped by Professor Milton Stecher of the
Physics Department, Cooper Union School of
Engineering, except where otherwise noted.
i
10.
ety:
2.
Demonstration of the prismatic refrac-
tion of light into its spectrum; lucite
prism
. Candelabrum; cut glass, ormolu, Wedg-
wood jasperware; England; about 1785;
Cooper Union Museum
. Natural calcite crystal showing color
fringes due to air space at cleavage sur-
face
. Demonstration of Newton’s Rings, spec-
tral colors produced by interference
phenomenon
. Two optical flats showing the interfer-
ence of light rays
. Colored point light sources seen through
two-dimensional diffraction grating pro-
vided by 200-mesh wire cloth
. Additive mixture of light; overlapping
beams of red, blue and green light pro-
duce white light in region of overlap
. Demonstration of the disposition of
phosphors on a color television screen;
Radio Corporation of America
. Subtractive mixture of light; filters of
magenta, cyan and yellow produce black
in region of overlap
Neon, argon and helium gases produc-
ing colored light alone and in interac-
tion with phosphors and colored glass;
Corning Glass Center
Sheet diffraction grating, 13,400 lines per
inch, used for measurement of wave-
lengths in the visible spectrum; to be used
to view the discrete and continuous spec-
trum of half-phosphored fluorescent tube
Half-phosphored fluorescent lamp; de-
monstrating the use of a coating of phos-
phors, which absorbs the radiant energy
of the discrete wave-lengths in the spec-
13.
14.
15.
16.
t7.
trum of mercury vapor and remits this
energy in a continuous spectrum which
appears white
Spectrometer; measures the wave-length
of light
Dark field kaleidoscope; made and lent
by Professor Milton Stecher
Mechanical polaroid kaleidoscope; Sun
Chemical Corporation
Kaleidoscope projection; Tom Lee, Ltd.
Polarized Light Machine; made by Han-
nes Beckmann; Cooper Union Art School
VISUAL PHENOMENA AND COLOR PERCEPTION
18.
1!
20.
2
22.
w3\
24.
Zoe
HRR, (Hardy-Rand-Rittler), color per-
ception test; American Optical Com-
pany, Instrument Division
Textile fragment; silk compound satin;
Spain, Mudejar; 15th century; Cooper
Union Museum
Textile fragment; brocaded silk and
metal compound cloth; Spain; 14th cen-
tury; Cooper Union Museum
Series of five paintings, Five Aspects of
Scarlet; oil on canvas; Ben Cunningham
(1904- ); United States; 1950; Ben
Cunningham
Bookpaper, decorated paper for book-
lining; Turkey; 20th century; Cooper
Union Museum
Demonstration of after-image of com-
plementary color; half-black, half-white
disc with notch on periphery through
which red light is seen when rotated one
way, shows green when rotated in other
direction; Physics Department, Cooper
Union School of Engineering
Section of woman’s blouse; appliqué and
patchwork; cotton; Panama, San Blas
Islands; 20th century; Cooper Union
Museum
Painting, The Scroll; oil and wood strips
on wood; Hannes Beckmann (1909- __);
United States, New York; 1956; Hannes
Beckmann
22,
26.
Pe
28.
295
30.
Silt:
Se
33).
34.
35)
36.
Se
38.
a9)
40.
41.
42.
Textile length, Cutout; printed cotton;
designed by Alexander Girard; produced
by Herman Miller, Inc.; United States,
New York; 1956; Cooper Union Mu-
seum
Chart; additive and subtractive films;
Cooper Union Art School
Chart; ten examples of volume color;
Cooper Union Art School
Chart; eighteen-step grey scale; Cooper
Union Art School
Chart; subtractive and additive films;
Cooper Union Art School
Chart; volume color and temperature
change; Cooper Union Art School
Chart; shadow on color, light on color;
Cooper Union Art School
Chart; blue film over eight hues; Cooper
Union Art School
Chart; hues, tints, shades, tones; Cooper
Union Art School
Chart; demonstration of luminous color
and additive color mixture; Cooper
Union Art School
Progressive steps in the design of textile
weaving; stones, leaves, pastel color rub-
bings, woven textile swatches; designed
and lent by Helen Kroll Kramer
Painting, Ultra-violet Hallucination; oil
on canvas; Ben Cunningham (1904-
); United States, New York; 1959;
Ben Cunningham
Studies in luminosity and vibration;
Cooper Union Art School
Painting, Modes of Appearance of Color
— Surface, Film and Volume; oil on can-
vas; Ben Cunningham (1904- ie
United States; 1951; Ben Cunningham
Book, De la Loi du Contraste Simultané
des Couleurs; M. E. Chevreul; France,
Paris; 1839; Dr. Sidney M. Edelstein
Book, Chromagraphie ou l’Art de Com-
poser un Dessin; Rouget de Lisle; France,
Paris; 1839; Dr. Sidney M. Edelstein
NATURE AND COLOR CHEMISTRY
Group of shells; ‘The American Museum
of Natural History
43.
4A,
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
a1:
SZ.
ye
54.
a:
56.
Group of minerals; steatite, turquoise,
lapis lazuli, azurite, malachite, cinnabar,
carnotite, red clay, jasper, agate, sulphur,
tourmaline, labradorite; The American
Museum of Natural History
Ceramic jar containing cinnabar (ochre
pigment); Mexico, Tlatilco; 800 B.C.;
The American Museum of Natural His-
tory
Cosmetic jar containing kohl (antimony) ;
serpentine; The Brooklyn Museum
Cosmetic jar containing kohl (antimony) ;
anhydrite; Egypt; 12th dynasty (2000-
1800 B.C.); The Brooklyn Museum
Cosmetic jar containing kohl (antimony);
alabaster; Egypt; 18th dynasty (1500-
1350 B.C.); The Brooklyn Museum
Cosmetics; eye shadows, lipsticks, mas-
cara pencils, hair rinses, loose and com-
pact powders; Helena Rubinstein
Raw cosmetic pigments; H. Kohnstamm
& Company, Inc.
Slate palette with bits of green pigment
adhering; Egypt, Mezaideh; pre-dynastic
(3400-3200 B.C.); The Brooklyn Mu-
seum
Pigments; yellow and red ochre, light
blue and cobalt frit; Egypt, Tell-el-
Amarna (1355-1317 B.C.); The Brook-
lyn Museum
Scribe’s palette with red and black pig-
ments adhering; wood; Egypt, Thebes;
New Kingdom (1300-1100 B.C.); The
Brooklyn Museum
Jar; reduction-fired unglazed red clay;
Egypt; pre-dynastic (4000-3500 B.C.);
The Brooklyn Museum
Bes amulet; Egyptian paste; copper car-
bonate colorant; 20th century recon-
struction of early Egyptian ceramic tech-
niques by Anthony Giambalvo at The
Brooklyn Museum Research Laboratory;
The Brooklyn Museum
Fish bowl; porcelain with underglaze
decoration; China; Ming dynasty (1368-
1644); Cooper Union Museum
Book, L’Art de L’Indigotier, from the
series, Arts et Métiers; M. de Beauvais
ais
58.
Se
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
HGS
70.
Tas
Raseau; France, Paris; 1770; Dr. Sidney
M. Edelstein
Textile, Pheasant in Foliage; cotton, in-
digo resist-printed; England or United
States; late 18th century; Cooper Union
Museum
Textile border; linen, embroidered in in-
digo- and madder-dyed silk threads; Tur-
key, Bokhara; 18th or 19th century;
Cooper Union Museum
Playing cards; indigo and other inks on
paper; Japan; 19th century; Jan Kindler
Shells; murex brandaris; The American
Museum of Natural History
Textile fragment; linen with stripes of
Tyrian purple, (murex-dyed,) wool;
Middle East; Palmyra; 83 or 103 A.D.;
William J. Young
Bridal shirt; murex-dyed cotton; Mexico,
Pacific coast of Middle America; 20th
century; The American Museum of Nat-
ural History
Murex-dyed yarn; Pacific coast of Middle
America; 20th century; Junius B. Bird
Photographs of Middle American In-
dians dyeing cloth with murex; The
American Museum of Natural History
Photograph of purple dye pits still show-
ing traces of murex dye; Lebanon, Jubail
(ancient Byblos); Arthur Damask
Raw glazes and fired glaze samples;
American Art Clay Company
Plates showing underglaze cobalt; United
States, Syracuse; Onandaga Pottery Com-
pany
Vase; cobalt glaze; Adelaide Robineau
(1865-1929); United States, Syracuse;
second quarter 20th century; Everson
Museum of Art
Shallow bowl; stoneware, copper and
cobalt glaze; United States; mid-20th
century; Everson Museum of Art
Beaker; earthenware, crazed copper
glaze; Théodore Deck (1823-1891);
France; late 19th century; Cooper Union
Museum
Covered urn; lavender blue and white
jasperware; Josiah Wedgwood; England;
a2
iss
74.
WS.
76.
de
78.
7.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
2S
late 18th century; Mr. and Mrs. Byron
A. Born
Mocha set; porcelain, cobalt glaze, silver
and wood mounting; France; about 1925;
Cooper Union Museum
Wallpaper colonette; printed from wood
blocks; France; about 1825; Cooper
Union Museum
Patent issued for William Henry Perkin’s
mauve; England; 1856; Dr. Samuel
Zuckerman
Textile fragment; brocaded silk taffeta
dyed with fuchsine; France (?); 1870-
1890; Cooper Union Museum
Textile; silk compound cloth, dyed with
fuchsine; France; late 19th century;
Cooper Union Museum
Sample book, Simpson, Maule & Nichol-
son’s Patent Aniline Dyes, 1865; Dr.
Sidney M. Edelstein
Chair; baked enamel on metal, seat of
cotton cloth; Eero Saarinen; United
States, Pennsylvania; 1959; Knoll As-
sociates
Wallpaper pilaster and cornice. Péche,
from the series La Chasse; printed from
wood blocks; Jules Desfossé; France,
Paris; about 1860; Cooper Union Mu-
seum
Textile, Pythagoras; printed linen; Sven
Markelius; mid-20th century; Knoll As-
sociates
Sample pieces of pulp paper, wool, silk,
leather and aluminum each dyed with
alizarin blue GRL; Allied Chemical Cor-
poration, National Aniline Division
Molding powders of phenol-formalde-
hyde resin for the making of Bakelite;
Union Carbide Plastics Company
Dry pigments; Allied Chemical Corpora-
tion, National Aniline Division, Harmon
Colors
Vinyl coated cloth for automobile up-
holstery; Canadian Industries, Ltd., Fab-
rikoid Division
Vinyl wall covering, Vicartex; embossed;
L. E. Carpenter Company
24
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
O35
94.
ON:
96.
OT:
98.
oo:
100.
101.
Printed aluminum foil wrapping; Reyn-
olds Metal Company
Acetate yarns, Celaperm; dope-dyed;
Celanese Corporation
Viscose yarns; dope-dyed; American Vis-
cose Corporation
Automobile paint color samples; Allied
Chemical Corporation, National Aniline
Division, Harmon Colors
Graded series of painted oil cans; Sears
Roebuck and Company
Color chips of anodized aluminum; Alu-
minum Company of America
Three isomeric dye formulas, with ex-
amples of their dyeings on cotton; Allied
Chemical Corporation, National Aniline
Division
Papers for packaging food stuffs, dyed
with United States Government certified
food colorants; Allied Chemical Cor-
poration, National Aniline Division
Cigar box labels, None Better, Harry’s,
Bracelet and Aetna; chromolithographs;
United States; about 1880; Jan Kindler
Progressive proofs of four-color print-
ing; Horan Engraving Company, Inc.;
United States, New York; 1949; Cooper
Union Museum
Wood block print, Shono Rain, from the
series The Fifty-Three Stations of the
Tokaido Road; Hiroshige (1797-1858) ;
Japan; about 1834; Cooper Union Mu-
seum
Progressive steps in wood block print-
ing; Japan; 20th century; Cooper Union
Museum
Tear sheets of color mixtures for news-
paper letterpress; Sun Chemical Cor-
poration
Transparent film printed in flexographic
ink; Sun Chemical Corporation
Vase; free-blown and panelled glass;
United States; 1840-1860; The Corning
Museum of Glass
Goblet; opaque and clear free-blown
glass; Salviati & Company; Italy, Venice;
1860-1880; Cooper Union Museum
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
Li,
2s
1S
114.
TS:
116.
Cullets of colored glass; Corning Glass
Center
Panel of leaded stained and painted glass,
Annunciation; France; 13th century;
French & Company
Demonstration of biological stains ap-
plied to various tissues for the purpose of
exposing foreign material; Allied Chem-
ical Corporation, National Aniline Di-
vision
MEANING AND PLEASURE IN COLOR
Painting, Mystéres de la Mer; oil on can-
vas; Odilon Redon (1840-1916); France,
Paris; about 1910; The New Gallery
Painting, Man on Horseback; watercolor
on paper; Odilon Redon (1840-1916);
France, Paris; about 1905; Mr. and Mrs.
Eugene Thaw
Toilet bottle; marbled glass; France; 17th
century; Cooper Union Museum
Bookpaper; marbled and combed; pro-
duced by La Maison de Beau Papier;
France; about 1950; Cooper Union Mu-
seum
Amulet, the deity Bes; faience; Egypt;
late dynastic (500-300 B.C.); Mathias
Komor
Fragments; striped cane glass; Egypt;
The Corning Museum of Glass
Composite glass eye; Egypt; 1st millen-
nium B.C.; The Brooklyn Museum
Glass inlay, lower portion of a seated
deity; Egypt; Ptolemaic (300-100 B.C.);
The Brooklyn Museum
Fragment of a glass vessel; cane glass;
from the tomb of King Tuthomosis III
(1490-1436 B.C.); Egypt; about 1450
B.C.; The Brooklyn Museum
Cane glass inlay square, rosette decora-
tion; Egypt; 1st century A.D.; The Brook-
lyn Museum
Sistrum handle; faience; Egypt; Ptole-
maic (4th to 3rd century B.C.); The
Brooklyn Museum
Figure, Silenus (?); faience; Egypt; late
Ptolemaic or early Roman; The Brook-
lyn Museum
HUT:
118.
BS:
120.
Ale
122.
123:
124.
P25
126.
Hae
128.
129:
130.
Rose in a glass; rhodonite, jade, rock,
crystal, gold; Carl Fabergé (1846-1920) ;
Russia, St. Petersburg; late 19th-early
20th century; A la Vieille Russie, Inc.
Vase; smoky topaz rock crystal, gold
base; Carl Fabergé (1846-1920); Russia,
St. Petersburg; late 19th-early 20th cen-
tury; A la Vieille Russie, Inc.
Clock; lapis-lazuli, enamel, gold; Carl
Fabergé (1846-1920); Russia, St. Peters-
burg; late 19th-early 20th century; A la
Vieille Russie, Inc.
Flask; blown and cut glass; Iran; 9th-
10th century; Cooper Union Museum
Vase; free-blown Favrile glass; Louis
Comfort Tiffany (1848-1933); United
States, New York; about 1890-1900;
Cooper Union Museum
Scarab; molded Favrile glass; Louis Com-
fort Tiffany (1848-1933); United States,
New York; 1880-1890; Cooper Union
Museum
Weight and fragment of a weight; black
glass; Middle East; 7th to 10th century
A.D.; The Corning Museum of Glass
Pair of earrings; gold, hummingbirds’
heads, glass eyes; France, Paris; mid-
19th century; Cooper Union Museum
Beetles; Jan Kindler
Scarf; silk, blue warp, green weft; India;
late 19th century; Cooper Union Mu-
seum
Ceremonial apron; beetle wings, toucan
and hummingbird feathers, human hair,
monkey, jaguar and peccary teeth, nuts
and seeds; eastern Ecuador, Jivaro In-
dians; 20th century; The American Mu-
seum of Natural History
Painting, Homage to the Square from
Afar; oil on composition board; Josef
Albers (1888- ); United States, Con-
necticut; 1959; Sidney Janis Gallery
Ceremonial comb; wood, parrot and
toucan feathers; Brazil, Rio Bianco area,
Uapixana tribe; 20th century; The Amer-
ican Museum of Natural History
Preserved Quetzal bird; habitat, Mexico
1S.
132:
133:
134.
135.
136:
is
138.
139;
140.
141.
142.
143.
25
and Central America; The American
Museum of Natural History
Headdress; macaw and toucan feathers,
raffia; eastern Ecuador, Jivaro Indians;
20th century; The American Museum of
Natural History
Tanka (Buddhist ceremonial banner);
tempera painting on cotton; Tibet; 19th
century; The Newark Museum
Textile fragment; wool, double-faced
warp-patterned weave; Peru, Tiahuanaco;
1000-1300; Cooper Union Museum
Textile panel; wool slit tapestry; Peru,
Central Coast; about 15th century;
Cooper Union Museum
Textile braid; embroidered wool; Peru,
Southern Coast; Nazca; 5th to 7th cen-
turies A.D.; Mrs. Penelope Strouth
Water bottle; Peru, Paracas; 3rd to 2nd
century B.C.; The American Museum of
Natural History
Water jar; Peru; Nazca; Ist to 4th cen-
turies A.D.; The American Museum of
Natural History
Water jar, stirrup spout; Peru; Nazca;
4th to 5th century A.D.; The American
Museum of Natural History
Twined cotton fragments, among the
oldest known textiles of the New World;
Peru, Chicama Valley, Huaca Prieta;
2500-1200 B.C.; The American Museum
of Natural History
Shawl; wool embroidered, plain and in-
terlocking twill; India, Kashmir; mid-
19th century; Cooper Union Museum
Shawl; wool, interlocking twill; North
India; 18th century; Cooper Union Mu-
seum
Camel; gold, champlevé enamel, lacquer,
diamond chips; India; Mughal period,
about 1800; The Metropolitan Museum
of Art; gift of the Shaw Foundation, Inc.,
1959
Miniature painting, Krishna at the feet
of Radha, and Radha’s friend pleading to
her to receive Krishna; paint on paper;
Rajasthani or Gujerati School; India,
Rajput period; about 1630; The Metro-
26
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
ot
152;
LSs:
154.
iS:
156.
politan Museum of Art; Rogers Fund,
1951
Miniature painting, Ragmala, Peacocks
Attracted by the sound of music; Ra-
jasthani School; India, Rajput period;
about 1600; The Metropolitan Museum
of Art; Rogers Fund, 1918
Painted and lacquered wood box, Court
scenes; painted metal hinges and lock;
India; Mughal period, 18th century; The
Metropolitan Museum of Art; Rogers
Fund, 1958
Playing card; painted leather; India;
about 1840; Jan Kindler
Vase; tin-enameled earthenware; France,
Nevers; mid-18th century; Cooper Union
Museum
Vase; porcelain, underglaze decoration;
China; Ch’ing dynasty, Chien Lung
period (1736-1795); Cooper Union Mu-
seum
Jug; tin-enamelled earthenware; Ger-
many, Ansbach; mid-18thcentury; Cooper
Union Museum
Bottle; opaque blown glass with applied
glass threads; Europe; 18th century; The
Corning Museum of Glass
Dish; earthenware; underglaze decora-
tion; Persia; 13th century; The Metro-
politan Museum of Art; Gift of Horace
Havemayer, 1945
Vase; free-blown, cased and acid-etched
glass; Emile Gallé (1846-1904); France,
Nancy; 1885-1900; The Corning Mu-
seum of Glass
Vase; free-blown, cased and acid-etched;
Emile Gallé (1846-1904); France, Nancy;
about 1900; Cooper Union Museum
Bowl; colorless and clouded green glass;
carved decoration; Francois Décorche-
mont (1880- ); France; first half 20th
century; The Corning Museum of Glass
Ceramic bowl, Chiin ware, reduced cop-
per glaze; China; Sung dynasty (960-
1260); The Metropolitan Museum of
Art; Fletcher Fund, 1925
Bark cloth; mud-dyed; Belgian Congo,
Ituri Forest, BaMbuti (Pygmy) aborigi-
157.
158.
[59:
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
nals; The American Museum of Natural
History
Vase; Chiin ware, stoneware,
copper glaze; China; Yuan
(1260-1368); Mathias Komor
Bowl; Chiin ware, stoneware, reduced
copper glaze; China; Ytian dynasty
(1260-1368); The Metropolitan Mu-
seum of Art; Fletcher Fund, 1925
Dish; soft paste, mark of painter Jacques
Fontaine; France, Vincennes; before
1753; The Antique Porcelain Company,
Inc.
Bowl; frit, painted decorations; Egypt;
19th dynasty (1349-1197 B.C.); Cooper
Union Museum
Pair of pendant ornaments for the head;
gold alloy, turquoise, pearls, amethyst,
coral; Tibet, Lhasa; 19th century; The
Newark Museum
Pendant; gold, turquoise, tin; Tibet; 18th
century; Cooper Union Museum
Vase; Rakka ware; black underglaze dec-
oration; Persia (?); 12th-13th century;
The Metropolitan Museum of Art; Be-
quest of Horace Havemeyer, 1956
Vase; stoneware, Persian blue glaze, in-
cised decoration; China; Ming dynasty
(1368-1644); The Metropolitan Mu-
seum of Art; H. O. Havemeyer Collec-
tion, bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer,
1929
Painted miniature, Sharaf ad Din ’Ali
Yazdi, Battle scene; School of Herat;
Persia; Timurid period, late 15th cen-
tury; The Metropolitan Museum of Art;
Rogers Fund, 1943
Tile; earthenware, lustre-painted; Iran,
Kashan; 13th century; Cooper Union
Museum
Bottle; earthenware, cobalt blue glaze,
metallic oxides (lustre); Persia; first half
17th century; The Metropolitan Museum
of Art; Rogers Fund, 1903
Rose-water sprinkler; glass; Persia; 17th
century; The Metropolitan Museum of
Art; Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917
Ewer; opaque glass, free blown with ap-
reduced
dynasty
170.
A:
172.
173.
174.
LS:
176.
WHT.
178.
Lyd).
180.
181.
182.
183.
plied decoration; Spain; probably 18th
century; The Corning Museum of Glass
Carved ostrich egg; oval medallions re-
presenting the Four Continents; Ger-
many, Franconia; 17th century; Cooper
Union Museum
Bowl; clouded glass; René Lalique (1860-
1945); France, Comes-la-Ville; about
1914; Cooper Union Museum
Bowl; Mishima ware (inlaid stoneware) ;
Korea; 12th-13th century; Miss Dorothy
Mathews
Dance mask; painted wood, raffia, cowrie
shells, beads; Africa; 19th century; Ma-
thias Komor
Textile length; cotton-backed silk checked
panné velvet; France (?); 19th century;
Cooper Union Museum
Five fragments of cups or bowls; Jat-
ticinio glass; Egypt or Italy; 1st century
B.C.; The Corning Museum of Glass
Amphora; glazed stoneware; China; T’ang
dynasty (618-905); Cooper Union Mu-
seum m
Scarf; silk, designed by James H. W.
Thompson; Thailand; mid-20th century;
Miss Ruth Marton
Bark cloth; Belgian Congo, Ituri Forest,
BaMbuti (Pygmy) aboriginals; 20th cen-
tury; Colin Turnbull
Bowl; porcelain, underglaze with enamel
overglaze decoration; China; probably
17th century; The Metropolitan Museum
of Art; purchase by subscription, 1879
Covered tureen on stand; soft paste;
France, Vincennes; about 1750; The
Antique Porcelain Company, Inc.
Waterpot (for use with solid ink slab);
porcelain, peach bloom glaze; China;
K’ang-hsi period (1662-1722); The Met-
ropolitan Museum of Art; H. O. Have-
meyer Collection, bequest of Mrs. H. O.
Havemeyer, 1929
Vase; porcelain; Japan; 19th century;
The Metropolitan Museum of Art; Gift
of Charles Stewart Smith, 1893
Tea bowl; raku ware (low-fired earthen-
ware); Japan; 17th-18th century; The
184.
LSse
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
Ot:
POD
193.
194,
LOS:
196.
at
Metropolitan Museum of Art; Rogers
Fund, 1917
Vase; porcelain, flambé glaze; Adelaide
Robineau (1865-1929); United States,
Syracuse; early 20th century; Everson
Museum of Art
Painting, Reading Nude; gouache; Rob-
ert Delaunay (1885-1941); France; 1915;
Fine Arts Associates
Vase; opaque glass, free-blown, carved;
China; Ch’ing dynasty, probably 19th
century; The Corning Museum of Glass
Vase; opaque glass, free-blown, carved;
China; Ch’ing dynasty, Ch’ien Lung
period (1736-1795); The Corning Mu-
seum of Glass
Pair of potpourri groups; soft paste; rose
Pompadour glaze; France, Vincennes;
about 1750; The Antique Porcelain Com-
pany, Inc.
Vase; Favrile glass, free-blown; Louis
Comfort Tiffany (1848-1933); about
1900; Cooper Union Museum
Headdress ornament; kingfisher feathers,
lacquer; China; about 1900; Cooper
Union Museum
Court lady’s summer robe; silk gauze;
China; early 20th century; The Metro-
politan Museum of Art; Rogers Fund,
1930
Fan; ivory, silk, kingfisher feathers;
China; mid-19th century; Cooper Union
Museum
Hanging bird cage; carved and inlaid;
ivory, jade, woods, nickel alloy, with
accessories of ceramic, amber, coral,
turquoise, amethyst quartz, kingfisher
feathers, jade, ivory and enamelled met-
al; China; Ch’ing dynasty, Ch’ien Lung
period (1735-1796); Cooper Union Mu-
seum
Painting,
Hannes Beckmann (1909-
Hannes Beckmann
Illuminated manuscript, missal, Nativity;
Franco-Flemish; about 1470; The Art
Museum, Princeton University
Illuminated letter B, cut out, Pentecost;
The Twist; oil on canvas;
); 1960;
28
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
207.
208.
209.
210.
Italy, Lombardy; about 1480; The Art
Museum, Princeton University
Illuminated manuscript, psalter, Christ
Rising from the Tomb; Germany, Augs-
burg (?); about 1250; The Art Museum,
Princeton University
Gable from a reliquary, Coronation of
the Virgin; enamel on metal; France,
Limoges; 13th century; The Art Mu-
seum, Princeton University
SYSTEMS, TERMINOLOGY AND COLOR
MEASUREMENT
Book, Des Couleurs E. Chevreul; France,
Paris; 1864; Dr. Sidney M. Edelstein
CIE (Commission Internationale d’E-
clairage) color solid; plots position of
selected colors in 9 planes on superim-
posed chromaticity diagram; Union Car-
bide Plastics Company
Ostwald color solid; chips from the Color
Harmony Manual arranged in 12 hue
leaves with 28 variations for each hue;
Container Corporation of America
Munsell color tree; ten major hues in a
three-dimensional relationship based on
hue, value and chroma; Munsell Color
Company, Inc.
Constant hue chart; blue to yellow; Mun-
sell Color Company, Inc.
Hue circuit; ten major hues at maximum
chroma; Munsell Color Company, Inc.
Natural value scale; nine gradations be-
tween white and black; Munsell Color
Company, Inc.
. Chroma scale; seven gradations of chro-
ma for red; Munsell Color Company,
Inc.
Ostwald hue circuit; hues arranged in
complementary relationship; Cooper
Union Art School
Ostwald color triad; blue to yellow;
Cooper Union Art School
Color fan; Dorothy Nickerson; fan ar-
rangement of Munsell Color hues; Mun-
sell Color Company, Inc.
Chromaticity diagram; National Bureau
of Standards
211.
22s
213:
214.
Pil:
220.
2a
N
N
to
. Rapid-scanning
ASA (American Standards Association)
Safety Color Code with CIE chromatic-
ity diagram; National Bureau of Stand-
ards
Demonstration of lighting intensity on
color; Large Lamp Department, General
Electric Company
Textile; compound silk; France, Lyons;
1830-1850; Cooper Union Museum
Color names in chemistry; correlation on
color names based on the ISCC-NBS
(Inter-Society Color Council — National
Bureau of Standards) Dictionary of
Color Names; National Bureau of Stand-
ards
Painting, Some Dimensions and Direc-
tions of Color; oil on wood with applied
string; Hilaire Hiler (1898- ); United
States; 1948; Mrs. David Glieberman
. New color scale for petroleum products;
National Bureau of Standards
spectrophotometer;
American Optical Company, Instrument
Division
. Textile weavings based on Munsell Color
System; Mrs. Luis F. Vela
. Weaver's blanket, design composition in
color and weave; made by Pola Stout for
J. P. Stevens Company; Pola Stout
Trinket box; arms of the Dand and Bas-
net families, court scene, trees and birds
in solid beadwork; Frances Dand Basnet;
England, Coventry; 1630; Cooper Union
Museum
Armorial hanging with arms of France
and Navarre; tapestry; Gobelins; France,
Paris; late 17th century; The Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art; gift of Mrs. Lionel
F. Straus; 1953; in memory of Lionel F.
Straus
COLOR AND HUMAN RESPONSE
. Wallpaper, Les Deux Pigeons; printed
from wood blocks; Jean Baptiste Réveill-
on; France, Paris; about 1785; Cooper
Union Museum
. Textile pilaster from a series of wall
hangings; ribbed silk embroidered in
224.
29.
226.
227,
228.
Boo
230.
231.
BaD"
AEN
234.
230);
236.
@ Hiver;
‘silk and metal; made at the Palazzo Al-
bicini; Italy, Forli; about 1700; French
& Company
Textile; printed cotton; Christophe Phil-
ippe Oberkampf (1738-1815); France,
Jouy; late 18th century; Cooper Union
Museum
Chair; carved and painted wood; in the
style of Michelangelo Pergolesi (active
1774-1801); England; about 1795;
Cooper Union Museum
Textile; silk damask; Italy, Venice; early
18th century; Cooper Union Museum
Textile; silk damask; France or Italy;
18th century; Cooper Union Museum
Textile; silk taffeta brocaded; England,
Spitalfields; 1st half 18th century; Cooper
Union Museum
Wallpaper pilaster and cornice, Jardin
printed from woodblocks;
Charles L. L. Muller; manufactured by
Jules Defossé; France, Paris; 1851-1855;
Cooper Union Museum
Length of carpeting; wool, jute; United
States, Ohio; before 1860; Cooper Union
Museum
Vase; glass overlaid and cameo-cut;
Thomas Faraday (1854-1942); manu-
factured by Thomas Webb & Sons; Eng-
land, Stourbridge; about 1890; Cooper
Union Museum
Pendant; gold, garnet, enamel, rose dia-
monds, pearls; United States; mid-19th
century; Cooper Union Museum
Design for the North Wall of the Music
Room of the Royal Pavilion at Brighton;
water color on paper; Frederick Crace
(1779 - 1859); England; 1818-1819;
Cooper Union Museum
Textile, Venice; compound silk satin; |
Robert Bonfils; manufactured by Bian-
chini Férier; France, Paris or Lyons;
1925; Cooper Union Museum
Book, Les Choses de Paul Poiret; Georges
Lepape; printed by Maquet; France,
Paris; 1911; Cooper Union Library
Textile; silk and metal cut and uncut
velvet; H. A. Elsberg; France, Lyons;
25U%
238.
239)
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248.
249.
250.
29 Le
2525
29
1910-1915; Cooper Union Museum
Book, Robes et Femmes; Enrico Sac-
chetti; printed by Dorbon-Ainé; France,
Paris; 1913; Cooper Union Library
Book, Decoration in Color; printed by
J. Hoffmann; Germany, Stuttgart; 1927;
Cooper Union Library
Wallpaper; printed from woodblocks;
René Crevel; France; 1920; Cooper
Union Museum
Wallpaper; printed from woodblocks;
René Crevel; France; 1920; Cooper
Union Museum
Wallpaper; printed from woodblocks;
René Crevel; France; 1920; Cooper
Union Museum
Bowl; reduction glaze; Gertrud and Otto
Natzler; United States, California; about
1950; Everson Museum of Art
Chair; transparent lacquer on wood, cot-
ton slip seat; John Van Koert; manufac-
tured by Heywood-Wakefield Company;
United States; 1959; Heywood-Wakefield
Company
Vinyl tiles; Amtico; American Biltrite
Rubber Company
Textile, Campo Lindo; printed linen;
United States; 1959; Jack Lenor Larsen,
Inc.
Textile; printed linen; Sven Markelius;
United States; about 1955; Knoll Asso-
ciates
Textile; printed linen; Ross Lytell; United
States; about 1955; Knoll Associates
Painting, Joseph's Coat; oil on canvas;
Ben Cunningham (1904- ); United
States; 1949; Ben Cunningham
Theatre costume from, The King and I;
Irene Sharaff; made by the Brooks Cos-
tume Company; United States; 1951;
Rodgers and Hammerstein .
Textile; brocaded pina fiber gauze; Phil-
ippine Islands; about 1930; Cooper Union
Museum
Textile; checked pifia fiber gauze; Phil-
ippine Islands; 19th century; Cooper
Union Museum
Tablecloth; embroidered sheer cotton;
30
253;
254.
2I2s
256.
Ceylon; early 20th century; Cooper
Union Museum
Scarf; silk ikat (tied and dyed warp
threads) in diamond pattern; Thailand;
20th century; Cooper Union Museum
Scarf; silk square; James H. W. Thomp-
son; Thailand;-mid-20th century; Miss
Ruth Marton
Textile, Midsummer; printed linen; Don
Wight; United States; about 1954; Jack
Lenor Larsen, Inc.
Textile, Obelisk; printed linen; Jack Le-
' nor Larsen; United States; about 1958;
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
Jack Lenor Larsen, Inc.
Textile; hand-loomed
mid-20th century; Thaibok, Inc.
Textile; hand-loomed silk; Thailand;
mid-20th century; Thaibok, Inc.
Textile; hand-loomed silk; Thailand;
‘mid-20th century; Thaibok, Inc.
Wallpaper, Baroque Stripe; Jack Lenor
Larsen; United States; 1960; Karl Mann
Associates
Wallpaper, Citadel; Jack Lenor Larsen;
United States; 1960; Karl Mann Asso-
ciates
Chalice, Ronald Pearson (1925- )3
silver, parcel-gilt, cast cup pierced with
plique - a - jour enamel; United States,
Rochester; 1959; Museum of Contempo-
rary Crafts
Playing cards; France; 18th century;
Jan Kindler
Playing cards, Steamboat Deck; United
States; about 1860; Jan Kindler .
Playing cards; A. M. Cassandre; France,
Paris; 1947; Jan Kindler
Kian, embroidered textile; hemp on
ramie, metal; Sumatra; late 19th cen-
tury; Cooper Union Museum
Red head and black leg; glass inlays;
Egypt; late Ptolemaic period (323-30
B.C.); The Corning Museum of Glass
Wedding shoes; leather, wool and metal;
India, Rajasthan, Udaipur; mid-20th cen-
tury; Oppi Untracht
Chasuble, worn during periods of plague;
cotton, resist-printed, linen, gold strips;
silk; Thailand;
270.
271.
pa Pie
Spain; 18th century; Cooper Union Mu-
seum
Bracelet; coral, gold and turquoise; Italy;
about 1870; Cooper Union Museum
Bracelet; coral and gold; Italy; about
1850; Cooper Union Museum
Head ornament; silver and imitation
- coral; Tibet; probably 20th century; The
ZI.
274.
279.
276.
20.
278.
Ais)
280.
281.
282.
283.
284,
285.
286.
287.
288.
Newark Museum .
Scarf for the dead, design of The Name
of God; cotton, printed; India; 20th cen-
tury; Oppi Untracht
Buoy globes; Corning Glass Center |
Airplane and airport lights; Corning
Glass Center
Railroad signal light lenses; Coe
Glass Center
Traffic signal roundels; Corning Glass
Center
Demonstration of lighting’s effect on
color; Large Lamp Department, General
Electric Company
Bookpaper, Fantasy; Ingeborg Bérjeson;
Sweden; about 1950; Cooper Union Mu-
seum
Study of Color and Communications; a
research project exploring the effect of ©
colors in reactions to various forms of
communications; Social Research, Inc.
Textbooks; development in use of color;
Sun Chemical Corporation
Packaging color trials for White Rose
Tea; Lippincott and Margulies, Inc.
Cocktail dress, Sun Goddess; Le Gip;
silk; United States, New York; 1960;
Le Gip Studios
Automobile colors; sample colors popu- —
lar from 1950 to 1960; Allied Chemical
Corporation, National Aniline Division,
_ Harmon Colors
Fashion Colors; chart of colors popular
from 1950 to 1960; American Fabrics
Home Fashion Colors; chart of colors
‘popular from 1950 to 1960; adapted from
graph prepared by Faber Birren for
House and Garden
Fall Colors; 1960; Esquire
Standard Color Card-— 9th edition; The
289.
290.
aoe
292:
293.
294.
295.
Color Association of the U. S., Inc.
Color card, projected colors for Spring,
1960; The Color Association of the
U. S., Inc.
Assembly of swatches for development
of projected colors for Spring, 1960;
The Color Association of the U. S., Inc.
Children’s clothing for Spring, 1960; W.
T. Grant Company
Assembly of swatches for development
of colors for Spring, 1960; W. T. Grant
Company
Model for opera setting, Ariadne auf
Naxos; Robert O’Hearn; United States,
New York; 1959; Robert O’Hearn
Theatre costume for Lute Song, the Prin-
cess before marriage; Robert Edmond
Jones (1887-1954); made by Brooks
Costume Company; United States, New
York; 1945; Brooks Costume Company
Theatre costume for Lute Song, the Prin-
296.
297.
298.
299%
300.
31
cess as a bride; Robert Edmond Jones
(1887-1954); made by Brooks Costume
Company; United States, New York;
1945; Brooks Costume Company
Two sheets of a circus billboard poster;
color lithograph; United States; 1950-
1958; Cooper Union Museum
Color structure; painted wood; Thornton
Rockwell; 1959; Cooper Union Art
School
Medieval torture pattern; originally re-
produced by Norman E. Hallendy for
exhibition, Look This Way, organized by
the National Industrial Design Council,
Ottawa, Canada; NIDC and Norman E.
Hallendy
Wood block print, Three Ladies Strol-
ling; Japan; 18th-19th century; Cooper
Union Museum
Painting, Peacock; Japan; 18th-19th cen-
tury; Cooper Union Museum
32
SELECTED REFERENCES
This bibliography has been limited largely to books and articles consulted in
the preparation of the exhibition, most of which may be found in the libraries of
The Cooper Union. Further useful references are listed in the appropriate
headings in periodicals indexes such as the Art Index; International Index, etc.
GENERAL WORKS
Aristoteles. De anima, book II & III (Intro-
duction to Aristotle, edited by Richard Mc-
Keon. New York, Modern Library, 1947.)
- Beaumont, Roberts. Colour in woven design.
London, Whittaker, 1890.
Birren, Faber. Monument to color.
York, McFarlane, 1938.
Birren, Faber.. New horizons in color. New
York, Reinhold, 1955.
Burris-Meyer, Elizabeth. Color and design in
the decorative arts. New York, Prentice-
Hall, 1937.
Couleurs; revue du Centre d’Information AS la
Couleur, Paris. (periodical)
Damaz, Paul. Art in European architecture.
Preface by Le Corbusier. New York, Rein-
hold, 1956, p. 46-67.
Evans, Ralph M. An introduction to color.
New York, Wiley, 1948.
Garnsey, Julian E. Color in architecture.
(Hamlin, Talbot. Forms and functions of
twentieth century architecture, vol. 2, p.
260-272. New York, Columbia University
Press, 1952.)
Gatz, Konrad, and Wallenfang, Wilhelm. Far-
bige Bauten. Miinchen, Callwey, 1960.
Gloag, Bill, and Keyte, Michael. Colour: co-
ordination for the manufacturer and user.
Design, no. 123, p. 34-40, March 1959;
Colour; co-ordinating a range. Design, no.
129, p. 33-37, September 1959.
Graves, Maitland E. The art of color and de-
sign. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1941.
Graves, Maitland E. Color fundamentals.
~ New York, McGraw-Hill, 1952.
Howgrave-Graham, Robert P. The cathedrals
of France.
1959, p. 62-67.
Inter-Society Color Council. Color as used in
New
New York, Hastings House,
architecture, design and decoration; report
of . . . 19th annual meeting. New York,
1950.
Inter-Society Color Council News Letter. eee
odical)
Judd, Deane B. Color in business, science and
industry. New York, Wiley, 1952.
Kreisel, Heinrich. Farbiges Nymphenburg;
Farbaufnahmen von Ernst Hausknost. Min-
chen, Bruckmann, 1944.
Lurgat, André.. Formes, composition, et lois
d@harmonie; éléments d’une science de l’es-
thétique architecturale. Paris, Vincent,
1953-57, vol. 3, p. 41-94.
Optical Society of America. Committee on
Colorimetry. The science of color. New
York, Crowell, 1953.
Regnier, Jean D. De la lumiére et de la cou-
leur chez les grands maitres ancien. Paris,
Renouard, 1865.
Watson, William. Textile design and colour,
elementary weaves and figured fabrics. 5th
ed. London, Longmans Green, 1946.
COLOR AND LIGHT
Eastman Kodak Company. Color as seen and
photographed. Rochester, 1951.
Harvey, E. Newton. A history of lumines-
cence from the earliest times. until 1900.
Philadelphia, American Philosophical So-
ciety. 1957:
Land, Edwin H. Reamer in color vision.
Scientific American, vol. 200, no. 5, p. 84-
99, May 1959.
Minnaert, Marcellus. Light and colour in the
open air. London, Bell, 1940.
Newton, Sir Isaac. Opticks; or, A treatise of
the reflections, refractions, inflections and
colours of light. 2nd ed., with additions.
London, Innys, 1718.
Society of Motion Picture and Television En-
gineers, Inc. Elements of color in profes-
sional motion pictures. New York, 1957.
Society of Motion Picture and Television En-
gineers, Inc. Principles of color sensito-
metry. New York, 1950.
NATURE AND COLOR CHEMISTRY
Baker, George P. Calico painting and print-
ing in the East Indies in the XVIIth and
‘XVIIIth centuries. London, Arnold, 1921.
2 vols.
Bancroft, Edward. Experimental researches
concerning the permanent colours. 2nd ed.’
London, Sidney, 1813. 2 vols.
Boyle, Robert. Experiments and considera-
tions touching colours. London, Printed for
H. Herringman, 1664.
Ciba Company, Inc. The story of chemical
industry in Basle. Published by CIBA Lim-
ited on the occasion of its 75th anniversary.
Olten, Urs Graf Publishers, 1959.
Ciba Company, Inc. Textile printing with
dyes of the Society of Chemical Industry in
Basle, Switzerland, and with those of the
Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Mich.,
edited and compiled by B. Wuth. New
York, Howes Publishing Company, 1928.
3 vols.
Cooper, Thomas. A practical treatise on dye-
ing and callicoe printing. Philadelphia,
Dobson, 1815.
Desbleds, L. Blin. Exact eset matching and
specifying. Paris, Technological and Indus-
trial Service, 1928.
Dollfus-Ausset, Daniel. Matériaux pour la
coloration des étoffes. Paris, Savy, 1865. 2
vols. |
Domestic processes for dying (sic!) woollen,
silk, cotton, and other stuffs, a permanent
yellow, red, crimson, blue .
pository of Arts, Literature, Fashions, Man-
ufactures; 2nd series, vol. 2, P. 13-15, aaly.
1, 1816.
Dyeing among primitive peoples.
view, no. 68, June 1948.
Dyeing and tanning in classical antiquity. Ciba
Review, no. 9, May 1938.
Ciba Re-
. &c. &c. Re- |
33
Dyestuffs; published quarterly by National
Aniline Division, Allied Chemical Corpora-
tion, New York. (periodical)
Eastlake, Sir Charles L. Materials for a his-
tory of oil painting. London, Longman,
1847. 2 vols.
Edelstein, Sidney M. Historical notes. Amer-
ican Dyestuff Reporter, 1957-59. (various
issues )
Exmouth, Charles E. (Pellew). Dyes and dye-
ing, by Charles E. Pellew. New York,
McBride, 1918.
Forbes, Robert J. Studies in ancient tech-
nology. Leiden, Brill, 1956, vol. 4, p. 98-
148.
Gettens, Rutherford J., and Stout, George L.
Painting materials, a short encyclopaedia.
New York, Van Nostrand, 1942.
Great masters of dyeing in 18th century
France. Ciba Review, no. 18, February
1939,
Hardy, Arthur C., and Wurzburg, F. L. The
reproduction of color. (Reprint from Inter-
chemical Review, vol. 9, nos. 1-2 and 3,
1950.)
Hodges, Dorothy. The pollen loads of the
honeybee; a guide to their identification by
colour and form. London, Bee Research
Association, 1952.
Indigo. Ciba Review, no. 85, April 1951.
International Printing Ink Corporation. A
‘series of monographs (on color). New
York, 1935. 3 vols. in 1.
Lawrie, Leslie G. A bibliography of dyeing
and textile printing, comprising a list. of
books from the sixteenth century to the
present time (1946). London, Chapman &
Hall, 1949.
Leggett, William F. Ancient and medieval
dyes. Brooklyn, Chemical Publishing Com-
pany, 1944.
Madder and turkey red. Ciba Review, no. 39,
May 1941.
Medieval dyeing. Ciba Review, no. 1, Sep-
tember 1937.
Merrifield, Mrs. Mary P. Original treatises,
dating from the XIIth to XVIIIth centuries
on the arts of painting, in oil, miniature,
34
mosaic, and on glass; of gilding, dyeing, and
the preparation of colours and _ artificial
gems ... London, Murray, 1849. 2 vols.
New York. Perkin Centennial. Proceedings
of the Perkin Centennial, 1856-1956; com-
memorating the discovery of aniline dyes.
The Waldorf-Astoria, New York, week of
September 10th, 1956. Sponsored by the
American Association of Textile Chemists
and Colorists. n. p., 1956.
Palette; published by Sandoz Ltd., Basle.
(periodical)
Parnell, Edward A. The practical treatise on
dyeing and calico-printing; including the
latest inventions and improvements... With
a supplement, containing the most recent
discoveries in color chemistry, by Robert
Macfarlane. New York, Wiley, 1860.
Paterson, David. Textile colour mixing; a
manual intended for the use of dyers, calico
| printers and colour chemists. 3rd revised
ed. London, Benn, 1927.
Paul, Alexander. The practical ostrich feather
dyer. Revised and corrected by M. Frank.
Philadelphia, Mrs. M. Frank, 1888.
Peacock, William H., and Kienle, R. H. Col-
oring materials for plastics. Calco Tech-
nical Bulletin, no. 707, 1944.
Persoz, Jean F. Traité théorique et pratique
de l’impression des tissus. Paris, Masson,
1846. 4 vols.
Pfister, R. Les toiles imprimées de Fostat et
l’Hindoustan. Paris, Editions d’Art et d’His-
toire, 1938, p. 23-28, 74-78.
Plangi — tie and dye work. Ciba Review, no.
104, June 1954.
Plinius Caecilius Secundus, C. Natural history
of Pliny, translated ... by .. . John Bos-
tock and H. T. Riley. London, Bell, 1890-
1900, vol. 2, book 9.
Purple. Ciba Review, no. 4, December 1937.
Salmon, William. Polygraphice: or, The arts
of drawing, engraving, etching, limning,
painting, varnishing, gilding, colouring, dy-
ing (sic!), beautifying and perfuming .. .
5th ed. London, Passinger, 1685.
Scarlet. Ciba Review, no. 7, March 1938.
Shepard, Anna O. Ceramics for the archaeolo-
gist. Washington, Carnegie Institution of
Washington, 1956, p. 102-113.
Theophilus, called also Rugerus. Theophili,
qui et Rugerus, presbyteri et monachi, libri
III de diversis artibus; seu, Diversarum ar-
tium schedula. Opera et studio R. Henrie.
Londini, Murray, 1847.
Thompson, Daniel V. The materials of medie-
val painting, with a foreword by Bernhard ~
Berenson. New Haven, Yale University
Press, 1936.
The Toilet of Flora; or, A collection of the
most simple and approved methods of pre-'
paring baths, essences, pomatums .. . for
the use of the ladies. A new ed., improved.
London, Printed for J. Murray & W. lit
1779:
Weaving and dyeing in ancient Egypt and
Babylon. Ciba Review, no. 12, August 1938.
VISUAL PHENOMENA, TERMINOLOGY AND
CoLor MEASUREMENT
Chevreul, Michel E. The laws of contrast of
colour: and their application to the arts of
painting, decoration of building, mosaic
work, tapestry and carpet weaving, calico
printing, military clothing, illumination,
landscape, and flower gardening, &c. Trans-
lated from the French by John Spanton.
New ed. London, Routledge, 1861.
Chevreul, Michel E. The principles and con-
trast of colours, and their applications to
the arts; translated from the French by
Charles Martel (pseud.). 2nd ed. London,
Longman, 1855?
Field, George. Chromatography; or, A treatise
on colours and pigments for the use of ar-
tists, modernized by J. Scott Taylor. 2nd ed.
London, Winsor & Newton, 1885. ;
Franklin, Christine (Ladd). Colour and colour
theories. London, Paul, Trench, Trubner,
1929.
George, Waldemar. Hilaire Hiler and struc-
turalism; new conception of form-color.
Texts by Hilaire Hiler and Vincent Schmidt.
Translations by Edouard Roditi and Anna
Elisabeth Leroy. New York, Wittenborn,
1958.
Goldwater, Robert, and Treves, Marco, com-
pilers. Artists on art, from the XIV to the
XX century. New York, Pantheon, 1945.
passim. 3
Helmholtz, Hermann yon. On the relation of
optics to painting. (His Popular lectures on
scientific subjects, 2nd series. New York,
Appleton, 1881.) ©
Helmholtz, Hermann von. Treatise on physi-.
ological optics; translated from the 3rd
German ed. Edited by James P. C. South-
all. Rochester, Optical Society of America,
1924-25. 3 vols.
Hickethier, Alfred. Hickethier colour system.
Translated from the German by Otto M.
Lilien. Hannover, Osterwald, 1956.
Higgins Ink Company, Inc. Color digest.
Brooklyn, 1953.
Hiler, Hilaire. Notes on the technique of
painting; with a preface by Sir William
Rothenstein. New York, Oxford University
Press, 1934.
Inter-Society Color Council, Inc. Bibliography
of color, collected by I. H. Godlove. Cleve-
land, 1957.
Jacobson, Egbert. Basic color; an interpreta-
tion of the Ostwald color system. Chicago, ©
Theobald, 1948.
Jacobson, Egbert. Color harmony manual;
949 different color chips in removable form
arranged and notated according to the origi-
nal system of Wilhelm Ostwald. 4th ed. —
Chicago, Container Corporation of Amer-
a jea, 1958. |
Kelly, Kenneth L., and Judd, Deane B. The
ISCC-NBS method of designating colors
and a dictionary of color names. Washing-
ton, U. S. Govt. Printing Office, 1955.
Maerz, Aloys J., and Paul, M. Rea. A dic-
tionary of color. 2nd ed. New York,
McGraw-Hill, 1950.
Munsell, Albert H. A color notation; an illus-
trated system defining all colors and their
relations by measured scales of hue, value,
and chroma made in solid paint for the ac-
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' H. E. Clifford. 3rd ed., revised and en-
larged. Boston, Ellis, 1913.
35
Munsell Color Company, Inc. Munsell book
of color, defining, explaining, and illustrat-
ing the fundamental characteristics of color;
a revision and extension of “The atlas of
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Nickerson,Dorothy. Color and its descrip-
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Nickerson, Dorothy. Nickerson Color fan;
maximum chroma, 40 hues. Baltimore,
Munsell Color Company, 1957.
Ostwald, Wilhelm. Colour science; a hand-
book for advanced students in schools, col-
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Winsor & Newton, 1931-33. 2 vols.
Rewald, John. Georges Seurat. New York,
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Ridgway, Robert. Color standards and color
nomenclature. Washington, D. C., 1912.
Sears, Francis W. Optics. 3rd ed. Cambridge,
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COLOR AND HUMAN RESPONSE
Arnheim, Rudolf. Art and visual perception;
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36
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COOPER UNION MUSEUM
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